Handout Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Handout - Essay Example ssion can also occur from mother to child during â€Å"pregnancy, birth or through breast feeding† and this happens when infected maternal fluids enter a baby’s circulation. Another mode of transmission is through injections in which people share infected needles and syringes, especially those who abuse drugs. The shared materials often contain blood samples of previous users and the blood is injected into another person’s system (Public Health 1). Transfusion of contaminated blood, though this is controlled by screening blood products before use to minimize the risk, is another mode of the infection’s transmission. Other medical processes such as organ transplant may also transmit HIV but prior screening reduces recipients’ vulnerabilities. Previous infections by sexually transmitted infections like gonorrhea and syphilis among other sexually transmitted infections increases a person’s risk of contracting HIV. Lastly, transmission can occur in health care settings when one encounter contaminated fluids or accidental injury by contaminated objects. The virus does not however spread through casual contact like shaking hands, toilet seats, and sharing towels as well as contact with saliva unless it is contaminated with blood (NHS Choices 1; Public Health

Sustainable tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sustainable tourism - Essay Example Positive impacts According to Honey (1999), tourism is a source of employment for many people who serve in the tourist hotels, tourist travel agencies or serve as tour guides and local traders. This is very important in a country with low agricultural viability and is not a major producer of any valuable mineral or oil. It is also a direct market for locally produced commodities for example artefacts, clothing and foodstuff while tourist hotels form a good market for locally produced agricultural products. Some of the Tourists are potential investors and this increases the chances of a country getting more foreign investment. Tourism stimulates decentralised development because governments will have to ensure that major tourist destinations within the country are developed. These include infrastructure development and rural electrification. Whenever tourists start visiting a country, the people start to realise the importance and economic potentialities of their available resources f or example wildlife, water bodies, coastal regions and culture. This motivates them to preserve these resources and hence a protection of an environment which could have been exploitative by man in various ways. This results to biodiversity preservation and preservation of the environment’s natural beauty (Prem1995).

The Punishment Of Murder In The Uk Criminology Essay

The Punishment Of Murder In The Uk Criminology Essay A crime specifies that there are constantly changing ideas, perceptions, and conceptions regarding what constitutes criminal behaviour. The topic that is a constant treat to the United Kingdom is what generates a murder to form, what kind of people be liable to perform these unlawful acts and furthermore other characteristics that may be the causation of the crime. Theses are the questions that the UK is prompt with at the moment and looking at these through a criminologist prospective we shall reveal what are the characteristics of unlawful crime of murder and furthermore the if capital punishment that should be indulged upon a murder. Murder is defined as The unlawful killing of another human being under the queens peace with malice forethought  [1]  . This definition provides an understanding of what the law states of murder; and furthermore shows that a person needs to have intention of committing murder. But the issue that constitutes is what makes a murderer to commit violent and unlawful acts. A criminologist would state that the background of the murderers comprise in a murder killing, but there is mainly a combination of factors that help perform these unlawful acts and they are biological, psychological, social, and economic. A criminologist would state that a lower class group or an lower class individual at the age of 16 20 tend to commit murders outstanding to the monetary or the social backgrounds and society they perpetrate in but issues are taken into account for mandate is the background reasons that build up unlawful acts of a murderer are a result in a combination of anger, jealously, revenge, pride or greed. But furthermore some murderers of a lower class mandate are a desire for control, revenge, and power. Frequently these factors when endorse is a potential of criminal activities of an individual. A criminologist would state that an incorporation of these factors is behind a person who has the mens rea in committing a crime. Also a murderer shall be classe d in accordance to the manner of how the murder was performed and inflicted upon another human being. The categorical area a murderer is put into is a serial killer, mass murder and spree killer. A serial killer is defined as individuals who have a history of multiple killing of victims who were usually unknown to them beforehand. Their crimes are committed as a result of a pressure that consistently has roots in the killers; a serial killer tends to commit a murder crime in one location and it was stated by Holmes and De Burger  [2]  .  [3]  Whereas a mass murderer commits murder of multiple numbers of people, this may be performed by a one person or a group of people.  [4]  The last form of murder killing is spree killing, spree killing is stated as a killing of two or more killing and commit murder in more that one location unlike serial killing and furthermore there is no break between the murders.  [5]  A murderer tends to commit crimes against a certain individuals for purposeful reasons. The types of people a murderer would target to victimisation of murder are pensioners for valuable items, it is mainly a sociological reason being money and the reason they may be murdered as they can not be seen as fighting back for they life. A lowers class person between an age group of 16-20 year old are likely to commit crimes and are helpless to getting murdered depending on the crimes they are committing and babies are a constant treat as the current British official statistics on babies changeability increasing from a total of 15% in the period of 2008 and 2009  [6]  . This shows that babies are targeted as vulnerable victims. Furthermore The British crime statistics show that homicide has been at a high but is dramatically dropping, through out the period of that 2000-2009. The official statistics illustrates the figures decreasing from 1,047 to 615 homicides this shows that most murders have decreased but the factor that needs to be taken into account is that capital pu nishments were at a high death ratio within that period and the punishments of death penalties have changed dramatically as there are more helping public bodies providing support towards the police stopping a crime of murder before it transpires. Looking at the homicide statistics of crime it is categorised into manslaughter, murder and infanticide, so this does not provide an understanding on how murders tend to be committed without the two categories and does not distinguish how much murders are happening each year. The other factor that is raised from the statistics state that men are mainly being killed at a high level that women as the percentage of men being killed for homicide is 39 % whereas female victims homicide are at a percentage of 11%  [7]  . This illustrates that men are more likely to be killed than women regarding to murder. Some theorist would state that the results of these deaths come from sociological, biological functionalism theories. The history of theor ies helps distinguish what is the causation of crime and furthermore the performance of crime. The theory of functionalism is a theoretical perspective of sociology.   Sociology examines the situations in which people live and how these situations affect them. Some writers may state that the way a person lives should not affect the way a person reacts towards a high crime of murder. Sociology examines the question of why the world is the way that it is.  Functionalism looks at society through a functional framework which stresses on everything; the functionalism method is an objective social world with similarity between the individual human being and society. Functionalisms look at the positivity of the society and always see the good in everything  [8]  . Some theorist may look at the point at looking at society as a positive way, this quote may not please peoples views towards positivity depending on what problematic issues people have been through in the past and furthermore people may not like the way society as treated an individual. The biological positivist looks at the offenders persons characteristics, this was popularised by the work of Lombroso  [9]  . Lombroso attempted to distinguish between different types of human individuals with classification of racial and biological differences. Lombroso wanted to establish a link between criminality by particular traits which correspond to various stages of human evolution. Lombroso stated that a criminal can be identified through a stigma of physical attributes such as, low intellect, high cheekbones and large ears, extra nipples, fingers or toes, an asymmetric jaw and finally tattoos, Lombroso had also stated that these criminals behaved in a different way for example low inability in the following factors, no social and moral issues, no differentiate between right and wrong, no guilt or remorse, no feelings towards other people and no form of any relationship.  [10]  So if a criminologist would look at Lombroso factors, there would be disagreements to th e issues raised by the theorist as the physical features of a human should not be predicted or labeled when born of them physical attributes. This may amount to people being sentences do death without the need of any evidence enclosure. Furthermore people may get the physical features of what was stated by Lombroso as to accidents, which may label a person as being a criminal. So it was tested by Goring  [11]  on a group and there was no significant behavior but it was criticised that Goring did not have a proper control group and the criminal samples contained mostly mentally disturbed people but he also accepted the fact that the environment does contribute to the growth of criminal behaviour.  [12]  the legal theorist basically stated that the attributes lead to murder killers, as a result the tattoos where seen has being a issue that was raised and it shows that it as a affect on murders as it provided a understanding of how society use tattoos telling how much murders t hey have committed and what gang culture they are from for example, the Thailand gangs tend to use tattoos as a symbol for distinguishing what gangs they are from and furthermore the gang reputation. In conclusion, after looking at the approaches of theorist and why people commit such crimes, it should be considered in real cases on whether or not punishment in the UK is effective or should consider using more fatal punishment similar to Capital punishment. Q2. Robert Mochrie was a middle class worker, whose occupation was taking family photograph, taken when his wife Cathy was awarded a degree at Cardiff University, and also had four children in school. Robert Mochrie had realised that his Mrs Cathy was having another affair with another male sex named David Osborne from south Wales. He had stated that he had an intimate and sexual relationship with Mrs Mochrie. This caused the murders to result in murdering the family as it emotionally and mentally affected Mr. Mochrie to commit an unlawful act of murder. Mochrie himself, killed the whole family in a hotel, Haverford west in South Wales because he hanged himself after murdering his wife, Cathy, along with Bethan, 10, Luke, 14, Sian, 16, and James, 18, in July last year. It shows that Mr Mochrie had affected the mental thinking which resulted in the actus rea of the crime  [13]  . Looking at a criminologist prospective this case distinguishes that Robert Mochrie falls in the definition of a mass murder as an individual committed multiple killing one and if a theorist was to approach this scenario he or she would look at various theories to see what the causation of the crime. A theorist would firstly look at it form the prospective of functionalism theory as it states that as a couple they should stay together and work together, it shows relating back to the scenario that the situation that Robert Mochrie was the issue of Mrs Cathy indulging with someone else whilst in the presences of Mr. Roberts. This had an affect on the mental state has it resulted in committing the brutality of the family annihilation. It shows from the theory that it should look at things in a positive way, but in relation to the scenario Mr. Robert in this case could not take the issue that had happen in a positive way as it affect the thinking of what his wife had done and the mental t hinking of Mr. Robert had not been take it into account that his wife would ever sleep with another man after being married and having four children which resulted in not allowing is wife to sleep with another man and in stopping this he committed the unlawful act. Whereas looking at another killer like Roaul moat who was a serial killer, Raoul Moat, was 37-year-old man and his occupation was a tree surgeon, bouncer and panel beater but it furthermore stated that Roaul Moat had injected himself with steroids which produced anger problems and had issues with old wife. He was from Newcastle upon Tyne, shot three people with a shot gun after two days after his release from Durham prison for previous convictions he had killed, his ex-girlfriend Samantha Stobbart, her new partner Chris Brown, and police officer David Rath band. Brown was killed after a man hunt was taken out in Roth bury after and the police tasered Roaul Moat which resulted in him committing suicide with his shotgun.  [14]  . If a theorist was to examine Roaul Moat scenario it would be looked at the prospective of biologist as it mainly complies with the theory of Lombroso has the murderer Roaul Moat had the physical characteristics of low intellect, high cheek bones as he was a bodybuilder, who had taken steroids which resulted in him having anger management problems to influence a murder or commit a crime. Hes suitable in the terms of the theory and furthermore Roaul Moat also is adequate with the functionalism theory as there was lack of positivity in Roaul Moat as a criminal record from previous shows and furthermore a previous relationship may have started the chain of causations. Having looked at what may have caused the chain of causation, it should be suggested on whether or not they should be given an imprisonment for life or capital punishment to death. Capital punishment is a punishment to death and since ancient times it has been used for a wide variety of offences. In England, only major offences carried the death penalty treason, murder, larceny, burglary, rape, and arson and it was stated in Waltham Black Acts, where it increase in the number of people being put to death each year. The statistics the peak year was 1785 with 307 people given a death penalty and furthermore in the year 1800 the population was just 9 million. The reform of death penalty was criticised in Europe 1750s, by French philosopher Cesare Beccaria and the English law reformer argued that the punishment of death was needlessly cruel has it was irrelevant to crimes like rapes has rehabilitation or other forms of method may have mentally have changed on committing unlawful crimes and looked at a more rational alternative a life imprisonment. But some writers would state that capital punishment was a preferable way in removing the worst criminals forever from society and helps provide a much safer place for other society users of Britain. Furthermore the dead criminals cannot commit any further crimes. Furthermore the issue that arise towards death penalty is the issue on monetary being spent on murders and the concern that are raised is the UK does not have an unlimited service, furthermore the government is exploiting money on murder killers rather that people with bigger issues like helping old, young and other people with a illness like cancer, rather than on the long term imprisonment of murderers. Spending money for life time imprisoned murders is not seen has being a real punishment whereas an execution is seen acceptable as retribution is seen by many member states of other countries after seeing the results of the death penalty has had a deterrence on the criminal activity. Issuing a death penalty is much more likely to be a deterrent and it shall have an impact on potential criminality has time to think about the possible consequences. But when a crime is committed on a stand still there is no likelihood that any punishment will act as a deterrent. A criminologist would specify from the statistics that death penalty really affected Britain economically as a whole, as the death penalty reduced the population of Britain which affects productivity, human kind and furthermore socially but on the other the statistics shows when the act of parliament abolished capital punishment it had a dramatic impact on the numerical people given life on imprisonment. The official statistics show unlawful killings in Britain have more than doubled since abolition of capital punishment the figure for homicides in 2007 was 734 and 6,300 people are currently serving sentences of life in prison for murder. From the statistics it shows that life in prison does not really deter people from committing murder as the figures tend to be rising but looking at the reform act it looks at the people closeness between the family and friends taking the impact. Having Looked at the for arguments towards capital punishment for unlawful killing, some writers would state that there are validated consequences on why a state should not provide capital punishments but more rational punishment. The first issue that a writer may constitute is a person may be innocent and may be executed and there is no possible way of compensating them for this wrongfulness of justice. There is also another significant, a person convicted of the murder may have actually killed the victim but does not admit it is a murder charge it then comes down to the skill of the prosecution and defence lawyers as to whether there will be a conviction for murder or for manslaughter. A second reason, that is often overlooked, is family and friends of criminals are the time leading up bring of the execution. It is often very difficult for people to come to terms with the fact that their loved one could be guilty of a serious crime and no doubt even more difficult to come to terms with their death in this form. The family should not be affected for the crime someone else committed and should further look at the prospective of the criminals as they are real people too who have right to life and furthermore they incorporate pain, fear and the loss of their loved ones.  [15]  . Relating back to the two scenarios of the murderers it can be stated that Roaul Moat should be given capital punishment having killed innocent people of the public and showed no remorse as he carried his criminal activity and furthermore as Roaul moat had already served an prison sentences for previous convictions for a period of couple of years, it shows that Roaul Moat is person who is not changeable if being sent to life in imprisonment, so it would be preferable for a murder of his caliber to be sentenced to death. Looking at the mass murder Mr Mochrie it can would not be relevant to send a person like him to capital punishment as he had a issue of domestic and the life of imprisonment would have rehabilitation his mental stability but him getting a charge of life it could.

Rochester as the Rake in Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre Essay -- Jane Ey

Rochester as the Rake in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre    The rake became one of the most recognized figures of the Restoration Comedies. The rake character was seen as unmarried, cynical, coarse but with the manners of a gentleman, manipulative and self serving. By the twentieth century the rake had given away to the Regency dandy and the dark Byronic hero of Victorian literature. However, the rake does not completely disappear from twentieth century novels. Charlotte Bronte resurrects the Restoration hero in the creation of Edward Rochester in Jane Eyre. Edward Rochester exhibits many of the qualities associated with the Restoration rake; he manipulates the woman around him and his actions are self serving. Bronte’s rake varies just enough that she can present her character as both hero and villain which eventually allows for his reformation. Readers are often deceived into believing that the rake should be viewed as a villain, hence their resistance in accepting Edward Rochester as a rake. However, as Harold Weber suggests that readers should not be concerned "with whether or not the rake emerges as a hero or a villain – he must [. . .] be both" (Weber 53). The rake’s mistreatment of women categorizes him as villain. Rochester’s mistreatment of Jane and the other women in the story is detestable. He confesses that he used Blanche Ingram to make Jane jealous. Rochester admits that he "feigned courtship with Miss Ingram" (261; ch.24). Rochester deceives Blanche into believing his intent was marriage; yet she was merely a pawn in his romantic conquest of Jane. The whole time Rochester pursues Jane he is already married to Bertha. Rochester hides his marriage in an attempt to find his definition of a more suitable wife. He t... ...tion. In the creation of her hero, Edward Rochester, Charlotte Bronte resurrected the Restoration rake. Rochester posses many characteristics associated with the rake. His past life is nonexistent without discussing some former lover. He deceives Jane into believing he is unmarried. Like many rakes, Rochester can be viewed as both villain and hero. While his actions towards the other characters in the novel are villainous, Bronte presents them in such a manner that the reader’s sympathies lie with Rochester. Rochester repents for his debauched lifestyle and is rewarded by the death of Bertha and his marriage to Jane.    Works Cited Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Ed. Beth Newman. Boston: St. Martin’s, 1996. Weber, Harold. The Restoration Rake-Hero: Transformations in Sexual Understanding in Seventeenth-Century England. Madison U of Wisconsin P, 1986.

Political Science Essay

INTODUCTION Public administration is indispensable of decision making because decision making very crucial in the sustenance of organisations. There are a number of decision making models .These include rational comprehensive model, satisficing model, incremental model and mixed scanning model. All of them have their assumptions, strengths and weaknesses to be discussed below. None of these models is the best but it depends on the nature of the problem at hand. However, one may argue that rational comprehensive model appears to be the best model among others notwithstanding the fact that it has some limitations. Therefore decision making is very crucial in public administration, as it provides solutions to emanating societal problems. BODY Definition of key terms According to Barron`s Accounting Dictionary, decision making is a purposeful selection from among a set of alternatives in the light of a given objective. According to Web Definitions it is a cognitive process of reaching a decision. To Simon decision making is synonymous with management. He calls it the heart of the organisation. In general decision making is an act of choosing between two or more courses of action. RATIONAL COMPEHENSIVE DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Carley cited in McGrew et al (1982:49) believes that rationality has a common core meaning. That is â€Å"distinction between ends or and goals and means to achieve those goals†¦some rules for evaluating the cost and benefits of each alternative means so as to select the optimum solution to the decision problem in a way which would†¦,be constructed and examined by analysts†. Thus to be rational is to be systematic, logical, intelligent and reasoning. It assumes that decision makers are rational beings who are driven by the need to maximise .It also assumes that one has to be comprehensive in order to be rationality .It assumes that decision makers have predictive capabilities to foresee accurately the consequences of alternative decisions. It also assumes that decision makers have higher propensity to access of information and resources. Thus the rational model has confidence in the decision makers since they are assumed to be rational. Stages involved in rational de cision making process Barber (1983:35)†rational comprehensive decision making approach deals with a programme of logical and sequential steps†. The first step is to identify a problem and all values related to the problem. This is what Hebert Simon call intelligent activity. For example the notion of occupational hazards, deaths and injuries at work place. The second objective is setting of goals and objectives to solve the problem. In this situation objectives might be creation of healthful environment, reduction of deaths and injuries. The third stage is listing all possible alternatives for achieving set goals. This is what Simon calls the design stage. The fourth stage is to list costs and possible consequences. In relation with the given example alternatives may be penalising organisations which are not attaining good health. This may be effective because organisations may comply. However, it may be burdensome on the part of the employer. It may lead to erosion of capital base of the orga nisation and that has the likely hood of hindering production. Awards to organisations which met the required health are another alternative. This may motivate organizations to have high safety standards. However, this may lead some organizations like National Social Security Association (NSSA) to lose. Another alternative is enhancement of inspectors which may be effective. However, it may be ineffective since inspectors may receive bribes. The last stage is to select the best or optimal option. This is what Simon calls choice activity. In this case the best option may be the notion of penal codes. Therefore, it is crucial for a decision maker to follow all the above stages as to complete the process of rational decision making. Strengths and significance It emphasizes the need to think critically through problems. It emphasises on the consequences of national decision making. It also emphasises values of fiscal planning and research. Hence rational model is very significant in providing solutions to encountered problems. Weaknesses Hebert Simon was aware of the limitations of rational model and he developed the idea of bounded rationality. He pointed out those human beings lacks cognitive to optimize. It is expensive and time consuming because of rigorous research and analysis. Decision makers are not always able to comprehend all possible information neither are they able to identify all applicable criteria, all alternatives and their possible consequences. There is no certainty about the future. The model invests in man`s predictive powers hence it remains a utopian. Decision makers are tempted to maximize personal goals than societal goals .For example, it is alleged that the land reform programme benefited the top state officials than the majority. It assumes that agreement can be reached yet reality in urban governance is that there are difficulties on interpersonal social goals. Problems cannot be dealt with in isolation, as the model assumes, because problems are always interconnected. Therefore rational model have its own constraints which then give birth to other models. SATISFICING DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Following the observed problems with rational model Simon (1947) proposed his own model called the satisficing model. According to Online Dictionary â€Å"satisficing is a decision making strategy that aims for satisficing results rather than optimal solution â€Å"This is because optimal solution may necessitate needless expenditure, energy and resources. In reality optimizing model is unrealistic. Realistic model takes into account bounded rationality. When faced with problems, decision makers try to reduce the problem to the level that it can be readily understood but acting within the confines of bounded rationality. Decision makers do not struggle to find the best but stop when they find the first acceptable solution. A simple example is as follows. A task is to sew a patch into a pair of jeans which requires a four inch long with a three millimeter eye. This needle is hidden in a haystack along with thousand other needles varying from size .Satisficing model claims that the f irst needle to sew the patch is the one that should be used. The criteria are far from being exhaustive. In the process decision makers may resort to past solutions or those that have been tried elsewhere. Stages are similar with those of rational model. Therefore, satisficing model emphasizes on satisfying decisions rather than optimal ones. Strengths The theory is based on human capabilities hence it is more realistic than theoretical. The model is faster since there is no in depth study. When there is unlimited amount of information available, the model can be beneficial because it helps the decision maker to effectively and efficiently reach a conclusion. Also it is manageable. It is practical and sensitive to difficulties since it is based on satisficing.This raise the notion of s realistic administrative who is conditioned by organisational culture. Probably that’s why satisficing model is also called administrative model. An organisational man complies with the established rules and regulations and follows the established course of action. Thus man is intentionally rationalized and not naturally rational. Therefore, satisficing model is significant in decision making especially in that it overcomes some of the weaknesses of rational model. Demerits This model can be detrimental when used in the wrong way. For example when considering a medical issue such as diagnosis, it is not the best strategy to use. Another example is when the government is making fundamental decisions like policies concerning declaration of wars; it is not the best method to apply. Thus the model is not best where best decisions need to be made. INCREMENTAL DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Following the observed shortcomings of rational model Lindblom severely criticized the rational model. In its place he substituted it with incremental model. It assumes that the status quo is the basic frame of reference, the focus is only short, only a narrow range of alternatives are considered. Decisions occur through an incremental process of successive limited comparisons. The crucial activities, problems, issues are most important and measurement of costs and benefits occurs informally. In this model the best decision is that which satisfies the demands of immediate situation. Examples include constitutional amendments, budgetary process, resource allocation and distribution. Therefore, incremental model is significant in decision making where emphasis is put on the preservation of status quo. Stages involved The model involves four stages which follow. The first stage is defining goal or objective. In incrementalism, goals and alternatives occur simultaneously. It requires a small set of alternatives to reduce complexity in decision making process. In stage two decision makers only consider a limited number of consequences for each alternative. At stage three problems confronting the decision maker are continually redefined. At stage four an agreement is reached on at least one good solution even if it is not the best possible solution. An example is as follows, status quo Operationâ€Å"Murambatsvina† which was aimed at cleaning the nation of Zimbabwe in 2005.However, it left some people homeless. The new objective may be to provide shelter for these homeless people. The new policy made on incremental bases is Operation â€Å"Garikai† which aimed at building homes for people. Unfortunately it is alleged that this policy was ineffective to some extent since only few people were served under this service because of corruption. Therefore the model has few stages to be followed. Strengths The model is realistic, practical and politically expedient since it is easy to agree on marginal modifications. The model seeks to avoid problems associated with rational model. Thus Lindblom (1947) describes his model as â€Å"The Science of Muddling through†. This model is the most feasible approach to systematic decision making when issues are complex, uncertain and riddled with conflict. It reduces conflicts which are normally associated with radical fundamental decisions. It acknowledges the constraints within which practical decision making takes place. For example it acknowledges that decision makers especially in the government do not usually have time, intelligence, capacity and the will to indulge in rational decision making on a day to day basis. It saves time and resources and acknowledges that problems are not distinct from each other hence interlinked. Hence incremental model is an effective and essential in decision making because of the above strengths. Demerits It is being accused of being conservative hence it is an obstacle to innovation. Booth(1978) cited in McGrew(1982:119) for instance, has described these factors in the machinery of local government in Britain which have inhabited the introduction of alternatives to residential use of strong, â€Å"rational † services against extensive supply of residential provision. Thus the model is incompatible in the making of fundamental decisions. It is not compatible in large scale policy. The model only works in stable conditions. It is accused of promoting short sightedness. Small incremental steps may lead to undesirable consequences. It is also criticise of lack of direction because of the notion of muddling through. Accordingly, incremental model also have its own weaknesses just like other models. MIXED SCANNING DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions This model is associated with Amitai Etzioni in 1976.The model takes rational approach and smaller set of decisions to be made incrementally. Thus the application of the model depends on the prevailing situation. The model emphasises scanning of a number of possibilities from which is generated selection of alternatives for action. It is more rational in practice to be selective and systematic about a limited number of feasible options and rationally to examine all the choices, Lee et al (1982:53).For instance, situations like declaration of wars calls for fundamental decisions. Therefore, mixed scanning is also a very significant model of decision making. Strengths It is developed as an adaptive strategy and practical approach to complex and uncertain situations. It reduces the unrealistic aspects of rationalism by limiting the details required in fundamental decisions. Contextualising rationalism helps to overcome the conservative slant of increamentalism by exploring long run alternatives. Hence, â€Å"each of the two elements in mixed scanning helps to reduce shortcomings of the other ,between incrementalism and rationalism† as noted by Etzioni (1969:390) cited in McGrew et al (1982:120).It permits taking advantage of both rational and incremental approaches in different situations. It permits adjustments of rapidly changing environment such as global concern namely security, poverty and diseases by providing flexibility necessary to adapt decision making to specific circumstance. It considers the capacity of decision maker. Ijeoma (2010:20) states that it is best in adverse cultural, political and religious beliefs as well as the economic and developmental inequalities that exist between developed and undeveloped countries. Therefore, one can note that mixed scanning model is essential and very beneficial since it is a combination of two models. Weaknesses It is not clear if the unrealistic and conservative shortcomings would actually be avoided. Specification of details is omitted so that an overview is feasible Therefore this approach seems to have few limitations as compared to other models. CONCLUSION In a nutshell, there are various approaches of decision making which can be applied in different situations. These include rational, satisficing, incremental and mixed scanning. Each model has its assumptions, strengths and weaknesses. None of these is the best, each model is best when applied in a right and appropriate situation. Thus the choice of approach to be used depends on the situation on the ground. It is crucial for decision makers to have the knowledge of where and when any of these models can be applied. Failure to do so may result in undesirable consequences. However, although these models are equally important, one may subjectively argue that rational comprehensive model is the best of them all because of its characteristics. NAME: ROSELINE T CHARUMBIRA REG NUMBER: R123982H DEGREE: POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSE AND COUSE : STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS CODEOF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (PA111) NAME OF LECTURER:MR ZVOUSHE NAME OF TEACHING : MR CHILUNJIKA ASSISTANCE TUTORIAL GROUP: WEDNESDAY 09:00 – 10:00 DATE OF SUBMISSION: 10-04-13 QUESTION : OUTLINE AND CRITICALLY DISSCUSS ANY FOUR MODELS OF DECISION MAKING IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barber ,M.P.1983. Public Administration.3rd edition. Britain: Macdonald and Evans Barons Accounting Dictionary. Ijeoma,E.O.2010.Africa`s New Public Policy: Imperatives for Globalisation and the National building in Nigeria. South Africa: Africa Institute of South Afric Lee,K.Mills,A.1982.Policy-Making and Planning in Health Sector. Britan: Croom Helm Ltd. McGrew ,A .G .Wilson ,M.J.1982.Decision Making: Approaches and Analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Online Dictionary Web Definitions.Decision Making.Retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/decision making.accessed on 02/o4/13

Manila and Dr. Jose Rizal Essay

1. What are the causes of the Indolence of Filipinos? * Rizal admits the existence of indolence among the Filipinos, but it could be recognized to a number of reasons. The factors that cause the indolence of Filipinos are the climate and social disorders. 2. Corroborate the causes of the Indolence of Filipinos that caused the disorder and backwardness of the country? * The hot climate in the country can indeed be reasonable in causing indolence. Europeans have a different case, since because of the cold climate, they need to work harder. He equates an hour of work in the Philippine’s sun with a day of work in temperate regions. The Filipinos are very industrious and hardworking before the coming of Spaniards. 3. Discuss the articles in the Philippine Century Hence. * â€Å"The Philippines a Century Hence† is an essay written by Dr. Jose Rizal to forecast the future of the country within a hundred years. The essay started by evaluating the various causes of the miseries suffered by the Filipino people. There are three; Spain’s implementation of its military policies, deterioration and disappearance of Filipino indigenous cultures and passivity submissiveness to the Spanish colonizers. The question then arises as to what had awakened the hearts and opened the minds of the Filipino people with regards to their dilemma. Eventually, the natives realized that such domination in their society by foreign colonizers must no longer be tolerated. Spain, therefore, had no means to stop the progress of the country. What they need to do is to change their colonial policies so that they are in keeping with the needs of the Philippine society and to the rising nationalism of the people. What Rizal had imagined in his essay came true. In 1898, the Americans fought with Spain to win the Philippines and eventually took over the country. Five decades after Rizal’s death, the Philippines gained its long-awaited independence. 4. What are Rizal’s predictions in Philippine Century Hence? * Rizal was not actually prophesying, instead what he was telling in his article was an analysis. He carefully observed the present and the past situation of the Philippines and he predicted the future. The domination of other countries to our country, there will be other countries in the world that are ready to take hold of our country, national consciousness had still awakened, and great Filipino minds still emerged from the remains.